Overview
Pragmatic structures relate to how language is used in context to achieve effects beyond literal meaning. Examples: implicature, presupposition, face-saving structures (polite refusals), and speech acts (apologising, requesting, promising). Understanding these is essential for C2 communicative competence.
Speech Acts and Indirectness
- DirectGive me the file. → imperative request
- IndirectCould you possibly send me the file? → indirect request
- IndirectThe heating seems to be off. → hint to turn it on
- LevelMore indirectness = more politeness but also more ambiguity.
Implicature
- 'Can you pass the salt?' — grammatically a yes/no question; pragmatically = request.
- 'It's getting rather warm in here.' — implies: please open the window.
- 'That's… interesting.' — pause + weak adjective = veiled criticism.
- Grice's maxims: quantity, quality, relation, manner — violations create implicature.
Politeness Strategies
- Negative politeness: giving space, hedging — I don't suppose you could…
- Positive politeness: showing solidarity — We're all in this together…
- Off-record: hinting — I notice the window is closed… (let them decide)
When to use
Workplace
'I wonder if the report might be ready soon?' = please hurry.
Formal speeches
Strategic understatement: 'This represents a minor setback.'
Diplomatic emails
'You may wish to revisit this section.' = this section is wrong.
C2 awareness
Recognising when 'Could you…?' is a request, not a question about ability.